# The Science of Running  ## Metadata - Author: [[Steve Magness]] - Full Title: The Science of Running - Category: #books ## Highlights - 1. Build and Maintain It is easier to maintain a quality than to build it up. Thus each particular training parameter should go through a cycle of being emphasized to build it up, and once its emphasis decreases, a small amount of training should be done to maintain it. ([Location 188](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=188)) - Tags: [[blue]] - When broken down in its simplest form, running is nothing but a series of connected spring-like hops or bounds. A certain amount of energy needs to be imparted into the ground to propel the runner forward, continuing the running movement. The amount of energy needed depends on the pace that the athlete is running; as the pace increases a greater amount of energy is needed. This energy comes about through two primary mechanisms called active and passive mechanics. Active mechanics refers to what we all think about when it comes to what drives running, actively recruiting muscles that generate force via muscle contraction. On the other hand, passive mechanics are a result of the body, namely the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, acting in a spring-like manner, temporarily storing the energy that comes about from the collision of the foot with the ground. During the subsequent push off or propulsion phase of running, this energy is utilized and released contributing to forward propulsion. These two mechanisms combine to provide the necessary force and energy to power the running movement. ([Location 243](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=243)) - Tags: [[blue]] - At first, the movement pattern is rough, uncoordinated and inefficient, but as a person becomes better trained, this process is refined and improved. Initially, the exact recruitment pattern or how to relax the opposing muscle is not known or refined. Slowly, the body becomes more efficient at determining exactly what muscles need to be working and for how long. This refinement results in a smoothing out of the movement and is an improvement in neuromuscular control, which creates an efficient movement pattern that enhances performance via improving efficiency. This process is called motor learning, and contrary to popular belief, running is a skill that needs to be learned and refined. ([Location 285](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=285)) - Tags: [[blue]] - This whole contraction process requires energy. Energy in the form of ATP is required so that the myosin head can pull on the actin. This movement requires the release of energy. However, in terms of supplying energy, ATP needs to be supplied once the myosin head has completed its pull to allow for it to release and be ready for the next pulling cycle. Thus, the process of supplying energy is one of replenishment. Without the resupplying of ATP after the myosin head’s pulling has occurred, the continual process of attaching, dragging, and releasing cannot occur. In our conceptualization, without energy, the actual pulling of the rope takes energy, but if we did not supply energy at the end of a single pull, then our person would not be able to move his hands further up the rope and pull again. This is the process of a single contraction of a muscle fiber. Once the contraction occurs, relaxation has to occur before a subsequent contraction occurs. Relaxation is dependent on the calcium being transported back into its holding site, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Until the calcium returns, another contraction cannot occur. ([Location 341](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=341)) - Tags: [[blue]] - When the myosin head uses energy, the ATP, which consists of an Adenosine molecule and three Phosphates (Pi), is broken down to ADP (Adenosine + 2 Pi) and a separate Pi. The separation of one of the Pi causes energy release. In the end, we are left with ADP and Pi floating around, or in some cases AMP (Adenosine + 1 Pi) and Pi. The energy systems work to use these and other building blocks to recreate ATP so that it can then be separated again to release more energy. ([Location 354](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=354)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Each energy system differs in complexity in terms of how many reactions are needed to finally get to ATP and on what the initial fuel source is. Obviously, with a greater number of reactions, it takes longer to go through the entire process. Additionally, there are more steps involved, which means more chances of slow down and more substances needed for each reaction. On the other hand, the supply of the products used during the energy systems matters. With our simple, one or two-step reaction systems they can produce ATP very quickly, but the fuel supply is limited and thus used quickly. The complex multi-reaction systems have fuel supplies that are much larger which means while they cannot produce ATP as quickly, they can do so for a much longer time. Lastly, one other difference is in the by-products that are produced. Each system results in additional products besides ATP. Some of these products can interfere with energy production or muscle contraction, and function in signaling to the CNS that the body is out of homeostasis. Thus it is a balancing act between by-product build up, the speed and power of the system, and the endurance of the system. ([Location 360](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=360)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The first system is actually several different small systems that are termed the immediate energy systems. The quickest and easiest immediate energy source is stored ATP; the muscle simply uses stored ATP as a quick and easy energy source. The problem is that the amount of stored ATP in a muscle is extremely low, enough to power contraction for only a second or two (Brooks & Fahey, 2004). The next immediate system is what is referred to as the Phosphagen system. It consists of the simple one-step reaction of Creatine Phosphate (CP) and ADP, which yields ATP and Creatine. Once again, the supply of CP in the muscle limits the use of this highly powerful system to only 5-6 seconds of work (Brooks & Fahey, 2004). Lastly, the myokinase system takes two ADPs and creates one ATP and one AMP. Even when all of these systems are combined,… ([Location 369](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=369)) - Tags: [[blue]] - To supplement the immediate energy systems, Glycolysis, which is sometimes referred to as the anaerobic system, takes part of the workload. Glycolysis is a system that requires no oxygen and has intermediate speed, power, and capacity. Essentially, it is the middle distance runner of the energy systems. Glycolysis works by the breakdown of glucose or stored carbohydrate, glycogen. The breakdown of glycogen requires an extra step and is called Glycogenolysis. Unlike the immediate energy systems, Glycolysis involves 12 sequential chemical reactions that take us from Glucose to Pyruvate. From here there is a fork in the road where pyruvate can either be converted to lactate or to acetyl-CoA. The conversion to acetyl-CoA allows for that substance to enter the mitochondria and be used by the aerobic energy system. Contrary to popular belief, the decision on which way the system goes at this point is not based on whether oxygen is present or not (Brooks & Fahey, 2004). Instead, the quantity of enzymes that convert it to lactate or acetyl-CoA and whether or not there is… ([Location 378](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=378)) - Tags: [[blue]] - One major drawback to Glycolysis, especially when it goes the lactate route, is that by-products are produced which can interfere with the energy systems, contraction itself, or even serve as a signaling mechanism to the brain that fatigue is imminent. While lactate itself does not cause fatigue, certain accompanying products, namely Hydrogen ions (H+), have been… ([Location 388](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=388)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While the buildup of fatiguing products is one downside to Glycolysis, the amount of energy produced is another downside. With each cycle through Glycolysis, 2 total ATP are produced, which is far less than the amount produced aerobically. Glycolysis is thus an intermediate system that delivers a… ([Location 392](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=392)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The last energy system is commonly referred to as the Aerobic system. You may notice that I am not terming it Aerobic Glycolysis. This is because Glycolysis is a process by itself that does not require oxygen. You have to go through Glycolysis to get the necessary products to proceed with aerobic energy breakdown, but it is confusing to think of aerobic and anaerobic Glycolysis because in reality there is one Glycolysis, the last step just differs. As mentioned previously, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, which then has to be transported into the mitochondria for use. The mitochondria are a different organelle and are commonly referred to as the powerhouse of the muscle cell. Once inside the mitochondria, the acetyl-CoA enters what is called the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle is the first step of the aerobic system. It consists of a series of 10 chemical reactions that function to produce an ATP source and a series of products that can be used in the second step of the aerobic system. The important products are NADH and FADH. From here, these products enter the second step of the aerobic system, the electron transport chain. The Electron Transport Chain consists of a series of reactions that basically take the NADH (or FADH) and another H+ ion and react it with Oxygen, creating ATP, NAD, and water. While the process is more complex than this, the important thing to remember is that it is only this last step in which Oxygen is required. As can be seen, the aerobic system requires a large number of steps and transport of products to and from a… ([Location 394](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=394)) - Tags: [[blue]] - At lower or moderate intensities, the full immediate energy store is not used up as the energy requirement is low and Glycolysis quickly steps in. Glycolysis takes around 20-30sec to reach maximum capacity, while the Aerobic system takes around 90sec- 2min to reach maximum capacity (Duffield et al., 2005). In looking at a race, in terms of the dominant energy system, the crossover point where aerobic energy is the majority supplied occurs at around 45sec (Hill, 1999). For this reason, if we look at relative energy system contribution for different races, anything over 400m uses the aerobic system to supply the majority of its energy. ([Location 419](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=419)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The timing of the energy systems reaching capacity is not the only issue. The amount of energy required also plays a role. The aerobic system is limited in its total energy supply rate capacity. Therefore if the exercise is at an intensity that is higher than the maximum rate of energy production for the aerobic system, Glycolysis has to step in and cover the energy requirement gap that is present. This results in the ever-accumulating by-products that can eventually lead to fatigue. For this reason, increasing the capacity of the aerobic system to produce energy is a beneficial training adaptation to delay fatigue. If the gap between aerobic energy production and needed supply can be shrunk, that means less Glycolytic energy is needed to fill that gap and less by-product accumulation. ([Location 425](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=425)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While lactate does not cause fatigue, the other by-products that can cause fatigue increase in accumulation at shorter high-intensity races toward the end of the race. It isn’t that they are being produced at a higher rate; it is just that the ability to use or clear these items is increasingly diminished. Additionally, some of these products cause a reduction in the ability to produce energy through Glycolysis, and as that system begins to “falter” and the aerobic system is maxed out, something has to give because the energy needed cannot be supplied. The thing that gives is the pace, as a slowing of the pace decreases the energy demand. ([Location 433](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=433)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The main method for classifying fibers is based on what type of a protein called myosin the fiber predominately has. The problem is that each muscle fiber type does not contain only one kind of myosin form, but instead most have a mixing of a variety of fast and slow forms. Therefore, it is not a distinct division in fiber types, like most believe. ([Location 441](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=441)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While scientists like to break things down into a nice distinct fiber type classification system, the reality is that fiber types are more like a spectrum. On one side of the spectrum we have what we’d call a pure ST fiber and on the opposite is the pure FT fiber. In between these two extremes is a range of fibers with different ratios of FT/ST characteristics, and this is where the majority of fibers fall. Where exactly a fiber falls depends on its individual characteristics, which include mitochondria density, capillary density, oxidative and Glycolytic enzyme activity, creatine phosphate stores, and contraction velocity. ([Location 446](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=446)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Along this continuum, training can shift fiber types to either the aerobic (ST) or anaerobic (FT) side. With acute training, the shifts are very small, but with long-term training, a larger change can occur. How large a change is up for debate. ([Location 451](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=451)) - Tags: [[blue]] - For example, in rabbits, a complete transformation from FT to ST occurs with chronic muscle stimulation only if the researcher goes in and creates lesions in the muscle fiber. In rats, the FT to ST conversion occurs but takes a large amount of chronic stimulation causing considerable muscle damage. What these animal studies demonstrate is that a complete conversion probably can occur, it just takes a lot of damage, or in other words a long period of time of training. ([Location 457](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=457)) - Tags: [[blue]] - fiber type percentages have been altered in elite skiers as shown when they were tested during their beginning stages of training and then 8 years later. A longitudinal study by Rusko found that after 8 years of training and a doubling of training volume, the percentage of ST fibers in a group of Cross-Country Skiers increased by 11% (1992). ([Location 461](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=461)) - Tags: [[blue]] - each muscle has a number of motor units, which contain a large amount of individual muscle fibers. These motor units are what gets signaled to contract and when this occurs all of the muscle fibers in the unit contract. An entire muscle will never activate all the motor units it contains. If this occurred, catastrophic damage to the bone and surrounding tissue could occur. Thus the brain always keeps some motor units in reserve, even during maximal contractions. This reserve can be thought of as the body’s safety system. ([Location 471](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=471)) - Tags: [[blue]] - muscle recruitment is dependent not on speed or intensity, although they are related, but on force output required. The amount of force needed is what predominately determines muscle activation. If more force is required, the brain activates a larger amount of the muscle fiber pool. This explains why running slightly slower up a hill activates more muscle than running on the flat ground at a slightly faster pace. ([Location 480](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=480)) - Tags: [[blue]] - There are instances when FT fibers are recruited before ST fibers, particularly in situations when a high amount of force is needed in a short amount of time, such as ballistics exercises or during sprinting. Similarly, the force rule of muscle fiber recruitment can be violated during prolonged activity when ST fibers fatigue (glycogen is depleted for example) and then the FT fibers are recruited to take up the slack, despite the relatively low intensity and force recruitment. ([Location 485](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=485)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The key is putting the body in proper position to get the most elastic energy return with the least amount of energy dissipation. This is one reason why running mechanics should be optimally developed. ([Location 504](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=504)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Understanding where fatigue comes from and how it develops is crucial for the coach and scientist. The name of the game is limiting fatigue so that we can race longer or faster. By knowing how it occurs, a coach can plan training to adapt the body to resist fatigue. A coach can then use this knowledge of fatigue to create workouts based on fatigue models, ([Location 547](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=547)) - Tags: [[blue]] - going at the same pace as long as they can produce the force necessary on the ground. Once they cannot impart enough force, the pace has to slow as they are not able to cover the same amount of ground with the same stride rate. But what causes a drop in force? Muscle fatigue. ([Location 558](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=558)) - Tags: [[blue]] - From the single contraction point of view, we can see that the last portion of muscle contraction is important when discussing fatigue. Many theorize that since the last step of muscle contraction is dependent on ATP supply, energy supply is what limits performance. Or in other words, in order to delay fatigue, the recycling of ATP must keep up with the demand for ATP by the muscles. If supply cannot keep up with demand, then fatigue occurs. As you all know, we have several different energy systems to recycle ATP. This is where the energetic theory of fatigue comes into play. If we cannot regenerate ATP at a sufficient rate, fatigue occurs. The importance of the energy systems derives from these ideas. ([Location 569](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=569)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While single muscle fiber contraction is how force is developed in isolation, the reality is that total force develops through the integration of many different motor units being active. Thus, the second factor that determines force is how many motor units are recruited to do the work. As previously mentioned, the Central Nervous System (CNS) sends the signal to the muscle to initiate recruitment. Thus, the CNS is in charge of deciding how many motor units need to be recruited to do the necessary work. The CNS can regulate exact force production in several ways. First, the type of motor units recruited and their individual characteristics play a role. Muscle fiber types are typically broken down into several distinct types, but it is best to think of them as a spectrum ranging from pure Fast Twitch (FT) to pure Slow Twitch (ST). The more FT a fiber is the higher force production from that fiber but the lower fatigue resistance. For this reason, ST fibers are generally initially recruited while FT fibers are reserved for later recruitment or very high force requirement activities like sprinting. Second, the total amount of motor units recruited influences force production. A greater amount of motor units recruited means more muscle fibers able to do the work. Obviously whether they are FT or ST fibers also plays a role but in general, the more motor units that are recruited the more force that can be developed. Lastly, the way in which muscles are recruited plays a role. Muscle recruitment can either happen synchronistically or asynchronistically. For endurance events, recruitment generally happens in an asynchronous fashion in which we rotate the work among motor units as some contract while others rest. Once the working units become fatigued, the resting units take over the workload and let the fatigued one’s rest (Maglischo, 2003). In this way, force output is kept constant. While these aren’t the only ways the body regulates force output, for fatigue these are the main ones to consider. ([Location 574](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=574)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The By-Product buildup idea states that it is the buildup of certain by-products or substances that cause fatigue at several different levels. The most common, although wrong, example of this theory is the buildup of lactic acid. In essence, the buildup of certain products creates fatigue by impairing force output at any number of the different steps to get from muscle recruitment to contraction. ([Location 613](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=613)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The belief is that the energy systems, mainly the Glycolytic one, create by-products that inhibit subsequent energy production. As the use of these systems increased, by-products that cause fatigue increased to a degree that they interfered with total energy production from all the systems. In the energetic model, the enzymes that catalyze the numerous chemical reactions become less active, thus directly slowing energy production. ([Location 620](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=620)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While lactate was initially seen as the culprit, hydrogen ions (H+) and the corresponding drop in pH are more compelling examples. As pH drops, the rate of ATP replenishment drops due to a reduction of two enzymes, PFK and ATPase, as well as an increase in the amount of Calcium needed during muscle contraction (Maglischo, 2003). This is just one example, and while it is beyond the scope of this book to review every product and site of fatigue, some include increased levels of: H+, ammonia, Potassium, Phosphate, Calcium, and ADP (Hargreaves & Spriett, 2006). ([Location 628](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=628)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The idea of depletion is basically the exact opposite of the by-product buildup idea. Instead of the accumulation of products that cause fatigue, it is the depletion of products that lead to fatigue. It’s best to think of this theory in terms of fuel sources. Whenever a vital fuel source is running low, then fatigue is going to occur because the runner will need to slow down and switch fuel sources to make sure that total depletion does not occur. ([Location 633](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=633)) - Tags: [[blue]] - One key concept to understand with energy systems is that they don’t work independently. As soon as hard exercise starts they are all on, it just takes longer for some to rev up to full capacity and take their workload. Thus the immediate systems and then Glycolysis carry the early load during the start of the race until the aerobic system gets revved up in distance races. Research has demonstrated that this crossover point where the aerobic system becomes predominant is usually around 90 seconds (Spencer & Gastin, 2001). Thus, contrary to what popular literature states, in middle and distance events, we get more energy aerobically as the race progresses. Due to the predominance of the aerobic system in middle and long distance events and the fact that it does not build up by-products that can lead to fatigue at the same rate as the other systems, oxygen has been given central importance in running performance. Oxygen allows the Aerobic system to function and do its job. Without the oxygen taken in, delivered, and utilized we have to rely more on Glycolysis and suffer the consequences of building up by-products. Therefore the supply and utilization of oxygen so that the aerobic system can recycle energy are crucial when it comes to fatigue. ([Location 653](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=653)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The last idea on fatigue is an integrated model, which we will touch on, in the next chapter. The idea is espoused by Tim Noakes in his Central Governor model and in other dynamic models such as Samuel Marcora’s. The central idea of such models is that fatigue is not directly caused by any such buildup or depletion of certain products. Instead, those products serve as feedback for either a conscious or subconscious controlling mechanism. Whatever the controlling mechanism is, the point is that exercise is not limited but rather regulated. The body uses the changes in homeostasis of the various products to regulate fatigue. Depending on the model it does this through regulation of muscle force output. Finally tying it back to the force output mechanisms, remember back to the various methods of regulating force output. Noakes’ CGM states that the body uses the feedback it receives to regulate performance by controlling force output via the various methods already mentioned, chiefly muscle recruitment. If the by-products build up too quickly, muscle recruitment is decreased, and thus the runner slows. In Noakes’ model, this occurs via a subconscious regulatory system. ([Location 663](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=663)) - Tags: [[blue]] - For the conscious controlling mechanism, Marcora refers to pain perception and the level of motivation. The increase or decrease in by-products causes changes in pain perception. As the pain increases, runners consciously control their speed and thus force output. The more pain we feel, the more we slow down. The body, in essence, is creating ever-increasing levels of pain to protect itself and forces us to fold to its demands no matter how much drive we have for pushing on. At some point, pain levels will increase to such a high level that the athlete will be forced to give in and slow. The… ([Location 672](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=672)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Regardless of the model, the central difference is that exercise is regulated, not catastrophic. The traditional catastrophic approach would be that any of the sources of fatigue previously discussed would directly cause an athlete to slow down. The classic example would be lactate buildup would cause your muscles to slowly shut down. The integrated model flips the equation around and posits that the traditional fatiguing products don’t directly cause fatigue. Instead, they are simply feedback that the brain uses to regulate fatigue. As an example, if we are exercising in the heat and our core temperature goes up, the brain receives this information and starts shutting down muscle fiber recruitment to slow the rise in core temperature. ([Location 693](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=693)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The brain essentially acts as a safety mechanism with a goal of preventing your body’s normal processes from venturing too far away from homeostasis. Its ultimate goal is to protect itself from harm or damage. ([Location 698](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=698)) - Tags: [[blue]] - What is even more intriguing is that the brain works in an anticipatory manner. Instead of simply waiting until core temperature, for example, gets to a critically high level and then shutting things down and causing fatigue, the brain runs a complex calculation and slows you down in anticipation of reaching this critical core temperature. This is why in a time trial in the heat, your pace slows early on, despite not having enough time to reach a critical core temperature. ([Location 703](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=703)) - Tags: [[blue]] - It appears that using drugs that alter neurotransmitters in the brain has a profound effect on performance in the heat. The reason heat is often used is because it is the poster child for exercise regulation. We never really exercise until true heat exhaustion but instead are shut down early before we hit some critical temperature. ([Location 807](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=807)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In an experiment, Amann and colleagues (2006) used the drug fentanyl to block afferent feedback during a 5km self-paced cycling time trial. What occurred was not some super human performance because the information from the muscles could not be transferred to the brain, but instead, pacing went out the window. Without feedback, the participants ran like your typical inexperienced freshman high school runner: out crazy hard. In the study, the participants went out much quicker and harder, building up a greater degree of “peripheral fatigue” because the brain had no reason to regulate the pacing strategy. The second half of the trial, the participants faded hard and interestingly had problems walking and standing afterwards. What this study showed was that the feedback was one of the ways in which the brain ensured that exhaustion occurred at the finish line and not before. Essentially, the blocking of afferent feedback had removed the initial counter balancing safety mechanism. ([Location 877](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=877)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Starting with the simplest form of manipulation, a group of researchers put their subjects through a 6-week lifting test (Ness & Patton, 2012). They had everyone do a 1 rep max lift on the incline bench at the end of each week. At the end of the period though, they decided to be a little devious and changed the labels on the weights being lifted. Due to this act of deception, the subjects lifted on average 20lb more than they had at any other point in the study, simply by changing the labels. ([Location 888](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=888)) - Tags: [[blue]] - I’ve seen this same phenomenon in coaching college runners. On numerous occasions, athletes have gone from looking like they were falling apart to having a huge spurt of energy, simply after me telling them that if they run X, they can PR. The realization that they can PR at just faster than the current pace is enough feedback to lift them out of the doldrums of fatigue, pain, and suffering.   The point isn’t to go out and deceive your athletes but instead to understand the role feedback plays. It goes beyond the academic and has a practical purpose. What you tell your athletes or yourself while competing and, more importantly, how you deal with that information matters. That is a profound realization. In terms of practicality in coaching or training, it means that another variable of the coach’s toolbox can be feedback. Don’t ([Location 929](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=929)) - Tags: [[blue]] - What they discovered was that both psychological and physical effort increases throughout exercise, but TEA only played a role in regulating performance when performance was near maximal. During the time trial TEA and P-RPE increased gradually, reaching it’s maximum at the end of the exercise. And during the 1km sprints, TEA increased dramatically, indicating that there was a large conscious effort to increase speed during that 1km burst. ([Location 970](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=970)) - Tags: [[blue]] - What this demonstrated is that effort only governs performance when homeostasis is close to being violated. Once that point occurs, it takes more effort, or psychological drive, to convince the body to delve just a little closer to that edge. This sense of effort plays a crucial role in regulating performance as we shall see. ([Location 975](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=975)) - Tags: [[blue]] - How we feel at a given moment during the race is compared to how we expect to feel at that point in the race. If we feel better than expected, then the hazard score is lower and we can pick it up or last at the same speed. It is the mismatch between our expected feelings versus our actual feeling that governs performance. ([Location 996](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=996)) - Tags: [[blue]] - some researchers have proposed that the “self talk” that goes on in our head during a tough race is simply a battle between psychological drive and homeostatic control (St. Clair Gibson, 2013). It is a war being raged inside our head on how far to go or when to let go and slow down. ([Location 1009](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1009)) - Tags: [[blue]] - If this were mathematics, we would break down all of the above theories as follows: Performance = Mismatch (Expected Effort/Actual Sense of Effort) Where: Expected Effort= Previous Experience+ Psychological drive (importance) Actual Sense of Effort= (Internal + External feedback)* Hazard + current Psychological Drive ([Location 1014](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1014)) - Tags: [[blue]] - integrates feedback consciously and subconsciously and transfers this feedback as a sensation of pain and effort. When we race this effort is then compared to how we expected to feel during the race at that point in time. It is then integrated with how much psychological drive we have to push through the pain, or as I’d like to call it, importance. If there is a greater degree of importance, then the body lets the reins loose just a little, and we can push to a slightly higher danger level. This is the essence of pacing. It is the degree of mismatch that determines where our pacing and ultimately our performance lie. ([Location 1019](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1019)) - Tags: [[blue]] - to have a successful kick, there has to be some reserve left and enough reward or psychological drive. If this occurs, then the reins are let loose just a bit more. Oftentimes when we think of a kick we think of the ability to sprint at the end of the race, so most of the time coaches work on sprinting to improve it. But the reality is that it depends not only on our total capacity but also where we are in terms of using that capacity when we reach the time to kick. Research has shown that the kick is largely the result of tapping into our anaerobic capacity. The problem is that many runners use a large portion of their anaerobic abilities to maintain the pace during the race, so when it’s time to kick, even with lots of motivation, they don’t have as big of a capacity to increase performance. Thus the goal should be to have a larger capacity to use and training to be less fatigued and not having used that capacity when it comes down to the last 400 meters. ([Location 1046](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1046)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Ask almost anyone what limits running performance and the inevitable answer is oxygen. That may suffice for the general public, but does that vague answer mean breathing in oxygen, transporting it, or utilizing it in the muscles? ([Location 1083](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1083)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Contrary to popular belief, VO2max is simply a measurement and does not define fitness or potential. In fact, among well-trained runners, it is impossible to discern who is the fastest by VO2max. That does not mean that oxygen transport and utilization is not important, it simply means that the measurement of VO2max does not accurately reflect these processes. ([Location 1095](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1095)) - Tags: [[blue]] - VO2max refers to the maximum amount of oxygen used and is calculated by taking the amount of oxygen taken in and subtracting the oxygen exhaled out (Bassett & Howley, 2000). The measurement of VO2max is commonly used to quantify the capacity of the aerobic system and is potentially influenced by a variety of factors as oxygen makes its way from the environment all the way to the mitochondria in the muscles. To calculate VO2max the Fick equation is used, where Q equals Cardiac Output, CaO2 equals arterial oxygen content, and CvO2 means venous oxygen content: VO2max= Q (CaO2-CvO2) While the details aren’t crucial, this equation takes into account how much blood your heart pumps and uses the difference between the level of oxygen in the blood when heading to the muscles and then the level after having dropped off the oxygen at the muscles. It’s no different than calculating how many supplies are being dropped off at a department store by comparing how many supplies a truck was carrying to the store and how many were left on the truck when it left the drop-off. ([Location 1099](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1099)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The major steps include: Oxygen Intake Air intake to lungs To bronchioli and alveoli where it diffuses to capillaries (blood) Oxygen Transport Cardiac output-pumps blood throughout Hemoglobin concentration Blood volume/shunting Capillaries to diffuse the Oxygen into muscles Oxygen Utilization Transport to mitochondria Use in Aerobic respiration and Electron Transport Chain ([Location 1116](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1116)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The amount of oxygen diffused depends on both the pressure difference between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries and the total amount of pulmonary capillaries. The amount of capillaries plays a role, especially in well-trained athletes, because it allows for a longer period of time in which inflowing blood is in contact, meaning that there is a longer time for oxygen to diffuse into the blood. ([Location 1137](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1137)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Even at high intensities, the oxygen saturation in the blood is normally above 95% (Powers et al., 1989). This has been used as evidence that oxygen intake and transport from the lungs to the blood is not a limiting factor since saturation is near full. However, in some well-trained athletes, a phenomenon known as Exercise Induced Arterial Hypoxemia (EIAH) occurs. EIAH causes oxygen saturation levels to drop by as much as 15% below resting levels during heavy exercise. EIAH occurs because the large Cardiac Output of well-trained individuals causes the blood to move through the pulmonary capillaries so quickly that there is not enough time for full diffusion of oxygen and thus saturation to occur. Therefore, in some highly trained athletes, oxygen intake and diffusion can reduce the VO2max. ([Location 1140](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1140)) - Tags: [[blue]] - with a larger Cardiac Output blood moves through the area where oxygen exchange occurs more quickly, resulting in less time available for loading and unloading. This can be partially offset by an increase in pulmonary capillaries. ([Location 1153](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1153)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The larger cross-section of the capillaries allows for a longer amount of time for oxygen saturation to occur. If you find that an athlete has reduced oxygen saturation levels or EIAH, it might be beneficial to try and enhance pulmonary capillarization through various exercises designed to stress the pulmonary system. ([Location 1154](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1154)) - Tags: [[blue]] - the act of ventilation itself requires a larger oxygen and energetic load that must be accounted for. These findings that respiration has a higher oxygen cost in well-trained athletes lends credence to the idea that demands and limits in trained versus untrained athletes are different. ([Location 1164](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1164)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Another potential reason that respiration could limit performance is that the respiratory muscles compete for blood flow with skeletal muscle. Due to this competition, diaphragm fatigue can occur at intensities greater than 80% VO2max (Johnson et al., 1993). ([Location 1166](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1166)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The contrasting results are likely due to whether oxygen intake and respiration were the participant’s main limiter. As we have seen, the degree to which the respiratory muscles contribute to VO2max varies based on training level. For higher-level runners, it is likely that respiratory fatigue or EIAH occurs due to changes discussed previously. For this reason, higher-level runners should consider respiratory training, while lower level runners probably will not see the same degree of benefit. ([Location 1178](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1178)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Oxygen transport refers to transporting the oxygen from where it enters the bloodstream all the way to the muscles that will take it up and use it. Di Prampero calculated that oxygen transport accounted for 70-75% of the limitation of VO2max (2003). ([Location 1184](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1184)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The heart’s Cardiac Output (CO) refers to the amount of blood that is pumped out of the heart each minute and is usually regarded as the major limiter of VO2max. CO is dependent on two factors, as it is calculated by multiplying Heart Rate (HR) and Stroke Volume (SV). Thus to increase maximum CO, one of these factors would have to be modified. Maximal HR is a factor that does not change due to training or even lowers slightly, while submaximal HR is lowered with training (Brooks et al., 2004; Levine, 2008). However, with endurance training, SV increases at rest and all intensities. ([Location 1188](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1188)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The increase in SV is primarily due to an increase in heart size and contractility. These changes to the heart cause an improvement in its ability to rapidly fill and an increase in the End-diastolic Volume (EDV), which is the amount of blood present at the end of filling. According to the Frank-Starling mechanism, the greater the stretch on the heart (or EDV), the greater the subsequent contraction is. Think of it as a rubber band-like effect. This means that an increase in EDV, which would create a greater pre-stretch, would increase the subsequent ejection, or SV. Increasing EDV thus plays a central role in increasing SV. In addition, endurance athletes have an increased ability to rapidly fill the heart at high intensities, which is important as at higher intensities there is less time between heart beats for the heart to fill (Levine, 2008). Further supporting this idea, work by Levine et al. showed that in endurance athletes, their increased SV was almost entirely a result of EDV increases due to enhanced compliance of the heart (1991). ([Location 1192](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1192)) - Tags: [[blue]] - With endurance training, blood volume is normally increased along with hematocrit and Hb. The body seems to self-regulate in creating an optimal hematocrit to allow for an increased carrying capacity of the blood while also having adequate blood viscosity. ([Location 1245](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1245)) - Tags: [[blue]] - There is an Ethiopian-specific pattern of adaptation to altitude to go along with the previously found Andean and Tibetan patterns (Beall et al., 2002). The Andean response consists of erythrocytosis (RBC increase) with arterial hypoxemia (reduced oxygen saturation), the Tibetan pattern shows normal Hb concentration with arterial hypoxemia, and the Ethiopian pattern consists of maintenance of Hb concentrations and oxygen saturation levels. The maintenance of oxygen saturation levels at high altitudes points to some improvement in oxygen diffusion ability from the lungs to the blood or increased Oxygen-Hb affinity. The exact mechanisms are unknown, but the fact that several different patterns of adaptation have been found at altitude points to the idea that different adaptation mechanisms could occur in optimizing the blood parameters mentioned above. ([Location 1255](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1255)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Once oxygen is delivered to the muscles it then must be utilized. Oxygen utilization takes place in the powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondria, which is where it helps produce energy. We can quantify the oxygen utilized by the muscles by looking at the arterial-venous oxygen (a-vO2) difference, which tells the difference between the oxygen in the arterioles and the content in the veins. Oxygen utilization by the muscles is generally not considered to be a major limiter of VO2max. This conclusion has been reached from two main lines of reasoning. First, peak a-vO2 differences in elites and non-elites are not very large (Hagberg et al., 1985). Secondly, in looking at the a-vO2 difference, it can be seen that there is not much oxygen leftover in the veins. Arterial oxygen content is around 200 mL of O2/L, while venous oxygen content is approximately 20-30 mL of O2/L (Bassett, 2000). ([Location 1273](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1273)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Oxygen’s final destination in the muscle cells is the mitochondria. The Mitochondria is the site in the muscle cell in which aerobic energy generation takes place. To be transported across the muscle cell to the mitochondria, myoglobin is required. Myoglobin transports oxygen from the cell membrane of a muscle fiber to the mitochondria. Greater myoglobin concentrations would allow for more oxygen transport to the mitochondria, potentially enhancing oxygen delivery and thus performance. ([Location 1293](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1293)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Oxygen is used in the mitochondria during the Electron Transport Chain. Therefore the amount of mitochondria plays a large role in aerobic energy generation. In theory, the more mitochondria, the more oxygen utilization, and extraction that can occur in the muscle. However, many studies have shown that while mitochondrial enzymes increase significantly with training, the corresponding change in VO2max is much less. Mitochondrial enzymes function to aid the chemical reactions needed to eventually generate energy. In one study monitoring changes with training and detraining, mitochondrial capacity increased by 30% with training, while VO2max increased by only 19%.However, VO2max improvements lasted much longer during the detraining phase than mitochondrial capacity (Henriksson & Reitman, 1977). Mitochondrial enzyme concentrations are much more likely to affect other factors in performance to a greater degree than VO2max, like Lactate Threshold and substrate utilization (Bassett & Howley, 2000; Klausen et al., 1981). ([Location 1297](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1297)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In a similar demonstration, a study by Powers showed the variation in the main limiter of VO2max between highly trained and normal subjects (1989). They tested VO2max while inhaling normal air and oxygen enriched air in both groups. In the normal group, VO2max was not significantly different while inhaling either type of air. In contrast, the highly trained group saw a significant increase in VO2max (from 70.1 to 74.7 ml/kg/min) when inhaling oxygen-enriched air. This leads to the conclusion that oxygen intake plays a role in limiting VO2max in highly trained people but not in normal subjects, thus showing the impact of training status and endurance capacities. ([Location 1318](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1318)) - Tags: [[blue]] - the takeaway message is that the individual physiology, the training done by a person, and potentially other factors can shift the limitation of VO2max to a number of different sites or alter the degree to which the various sites limit oxygen transport and even oxygen utilization. The bottom line is that VO2max represents a summary of many different processes that affect fatigue and thus performance. The absolute total number is not as important as how each path along the route to oxygen utilization in the muscles functions. ([Location 1327](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1327)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The route scientific progress takes is highly dependent on what we can measure at the time, and with the ability to measure oxygen consumption first arising in the early 1920’s, VO2max became an early darling of the physiologist world. ([Location 1351](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1351)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Recently, the legitimacy of VO2max as a measurement and the acceptance of VO2max as a practical measurement of cardio-respiratory endurance have been called into question. The contention is that VO2max is not actually a representative measure of the maximum ability to transport oxygen but is rather controlled by a central governor. In Tim Noakes’ Central Governor Model (CGM), the CGM predicts that the body regulates exercise to prevent myocardial ischemia during exercise. This is accomplished by limiting the blood flow to the periphery which the brain accomplishes by regulating muscle recruitment (Noakes & Marino, 2009). Therefore, VO2max reflects this regulation of muscles recruitment. In essence, a central governor acts as a regulator for exercise instead of exercise being limited by some parameter. ([Location 1380](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1380)) - Tags: [[blue]] - This finding was subsequently used to demonstrate that training at VO2max was the best intensity for improving endurance in all groups of people. There are two problems with this conclusion. First, the study’s findings are generalized to all groups, even though, as we will talk about later, VO2max does not improve in well-trained individuals. Second, VO2max and endurance performance are used almost synonymously, which is not true; as discussed earlier VO2max may not even measure cardio-respiratory endurance and is certainly not the only factor in endurance performance. ([Location 1443](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1443)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Using %VO2max and %vVO2max to quantify intensity is an accepted practice in research and is used in many training programs, such as those prescribed by Jack Daniels and Joe Vigil (Vigil, Daniels, 2005). The problem with this approach is that each individual will have a wide range of adaptation, even if training at the same percentage of VO2max. This occurs due to differences in the individual’s physiology. For instance, lactate threshold can occur at a wide range of %VO2max, even in trained individuals (Brooks and Fahey, 2004). As an example, if two trained runners both performed at a fixed intensity at 80% VO2max, one can be below lactate threshold and one above. This would substantially impact the energetics of the workout, as can be seen in a study that showed there was a 40-fold range for increases in lactate levels at 70% VO2max among individuals (Vollaard et al., 2009). In a recent study by Scharhag-Rosenberger they tested whether exercising at the same %VO2max resulted in similar metabolic strain. They found large individual variance in the lactate response at the fixed intensity, even if groups were matched for similar VO2max values. This led them to conclude that the use of percent VO2max values for training or research should not be used if the goal is to have similar metabolic strain by the exercisers. ([Location 1457](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1457)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In addition to lactate differences, factors such as the individual’s substrate use, fiber type, and other physiological variables will all vary considerably at a fixed percent of VO2max. This phenomenon was demonstrated in a study by Vollaard (2009). The study showed that while on average improvements were seen in a variety of endurance parameters after six weeks of endurance training, the individuality of the response was widespread with some showing even negative responses to the training, even though the training was at the same 70%VO2max intensity for all subjects (Vollaard et al., 2009). The study showed that there was a wide range of adaptation in maximal and sub maximal tests including VO2 parameters, muscle enzyme activity, and metabolite levels. An interesting finding in the study is that low responders for an increased VO2max were not low responders in other parameters. The change in VO2max did not correlate with the change in performance on a time trial, which is a significant finding demonstrating that perhaps more attention should be paid to changing performance instead of manipulating physiological parameters such as VO2max. One has to question the training recommendations based on training designed at improving parameters such as VO2max, with the assumption being that performance will improve because of it, when studies show that change in VO2max are often not linked with a change in performance. This phenomenon of varied response is not new and can be seen in a wide array of training situations, such as altitude training for example (Chapman et al., 1998). ([Location 1466](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1466)) - Tags: [[blue]] - in a study by Daniels, in untrained subjects VO2max increased during the first 4 weeks of training but did not increase after that even with a further increase of training, despite continued improvements in performance (1978). ([Location 1508](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1508)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Given the evidence that VO2max does not change in elite runners and does not correlate with performance, training focused on improving VO2max does not seem like a logical idea for well-trained runners. ([Location 1510](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1510)) - Tags: [[blue]] - While lactate does not directly cause fatigue, it highly correlates with it, so that as fatigue increases lactate increases. This is partially due to the linear relationship between by-products such as H+ increases and lactate increases. One of the keys to running performance is to delay the buildup of these accompanying products. If the rate of accumulation of those products can be decreased, fatigue can be delayed. So while lactate is not the culprit, it corresponds with the buildup of by-products that can cause fatigue. ([Location 1531](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1531)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In events that are run at speeds that require more energy than the aerobic system can provide, anaerobic energy sources must take up the slack. As previously mentioned, middle distance events have a significant anaerobic component. Due to this anaerobic component, certain products will accumulate in the body, potentially causing fatigue. Previous studies have demonstrated that an increase in H+, which is a proton that dissociates from lactate and would decrease the pH, may impair muscle contractility (Mainwood & Renaud, 1985). ([Location 1542](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1542)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In this book, Lactate Threshold (LT) is defined as the fastest running speed at which blood lactate levels remain in a relative steady state. Or stated in another way, it is the fastest speed in which lactate production and clearance are in equilibrium. ([Location 1560](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1560)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Lactate production within the individual fibers occurs via Glycolysis. At the end of Glycolysis, pyruvate is formed, which can go one of two routes: it can be converted into lactate via the enzyme Lactate Dehydrogenize (LDH) or into acetyl-CoA via PDH and enter the mitochondria to be used in the Krebs cycle and produce energy aerobically. Whether Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA and enters the mitochondria or is converted to Lactate depends on several factors, including LDH and PDH enzyme concentration and activity ([Location 1567](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1567)) - Tags: [[blue]] - It is important to note that we are measuring blood lactate when defining LT, not muscle lactate. That means that LT is dependent not only on how much lactate a muscle produces but how much actually makes it into the bloodstream. When lactate is produced it can stay in the muscle, travel to adjacent muscle fibers, move into the interstitial space between muscles, or travel to the bloodstream. How much travels to the blood is partially dependent on both the difference between lactate levels in the blood and muscle and on the lactate transporter activity, which will be covered later. Lactate appearance in the blood also depends on exercise intensity and the amount and type of muscle mass activated. Greater intensity means a greater reliance on Glycolysis without as much aerobic respiration taking place. Also, the more intense an effort is, the greater the amount of Fast Twitch fibers that are recruited, and because of their characteristics, they are more likely to produce lactate. ([Location 1574](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1574)) - Tags: [[blue]] - On the other side of the coin is lactate removal, which occurs via several mechanisms. Within the muscle cell itself, lactate can be used as fuel by being taken up and oxidized by the mitochondria. Therefore lactate can be consumed by the muscle fiber, or it can be transported to adjacent fibers to be used. Additionally, it can be transported to interstitial spaces (the space surrounding/between muscle cells). In these instances, lactate produced in the muscle would not increase the blood lactate levels as it would either be consumed by the producing muscle or adjacent fibers, or it would be sent to interstitial spaces. Lactate that makes it to the bloodstream can be removed in several ways. Muscle fibers that are on the Slow Twitch side of the muscle fiber spectrum can act as consuming fibers that take the lactate from the blood and use it as an energy source. Muscle fibers that are not taxed to a high degree also are used to take up lactate from the bloodstream. In addition, the heart, brain, and liver all play an active role in clearing lactate from the blood. The heart and brain use lactate as a fuel source, while the liver, through the Cori cycle, acts to convert lactate to pyruvate and then ultimately the fuel source glucose. This process has been termed the lactate shuttle, in… ([Location 1581](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1581)) - Tags: [[blue]] - An increase in mitochondria allows for more pyruvate to be converted to acetyl-CoA and enter the mitochondria. Because of these factors, the fiber type of the athlete and mitochondria concentration will help determine the amount of lactate produced and the LT. Not only does an increase in mitochondria size cause a decrease in lactate, but an increase in mitochondrial enzymes decreases lactate too (Bassett & Howley, 2000). This is likely due to an increase of the pyruvate that is converted to Acetyl-CoA instead of lactate or an increased ability for lactate oxidation. Going beyond just changes in lactate concentration, several studies have established a relationship between mitochondrial enzyme activity and the LT (Coyle, 1995). Lastly, a study on detraining found that the drop in LT that occurred closely mirrored the drop in mitochondrial enzyme activity (Coyle, 1985). These results show the close relationship between lactate levels and mitochondrial enzyme levels. ([Location 1599](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1599)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Lactate clearance occurs via the lactate shuttle. Lactate produced in a muscle fiber can be used as a fuel source by several different organs; including being shuttled to adjacent muscle fibers, the liver, cardiac muscle, and other muscles via the bloodstream (Stallknecht et al., 1998). This shuttle system allows for the transport of an energy source, which is important because stored glycogen in a muscle fiber cannot be converted back into glucose to be transported. Lactate transport proteins mediate this transport. ([Location 1607](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1607)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Lactate steady states are generally only considered to happen during longer duration running. In particular, it is often cited that the fastest speed that one can run while keeping lactate readings steady is a speed that a runner can hold for about one hour (Billat et al. 2003; Daniels, 2005). ([Location 1618](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1618)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The only true way to find a lactate threshold (or Max Lass) is to run at a constant speed for around 20-30min and take blood lactate samples and make sure there is very little increase in lactate from start to finish. Then, do this again at a faster pace. You have to keep doing this until you find the fastest pace that you can maintain without an increase in blood lactate. Practically, it’s pretty much worthless and too time-consuming. So we throw that idea out the window. ([Location 1638](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1638)) - Tags: [[blue]] - scientists have developed all sorts of ways to guess what the LT is based on a lactate curve. Some ways are more accurate than others, but most involve a step test. For example, a common test is to run 5x mile with 1-2min rest, starting at an easy/moderate speed and increasing speed by 15sec per mile or so. For example, running 5:35, 5:20, 5:05, 4:50, and 4:35 for someone who has a threshold of around 4:55-5:00. This gives you a lactate level for each speed, which is then plotted on a speed vs. lactate level graph. A variety of methods are used to determine where lactate threshold is, but they all essentially look at what speed lactate readings start to increase significantly over baseline. Some involve simply looking and guessing while others involve mathematical formulas, but the bottom line is all are educated guesses. ([Location 1642](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1642)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In essence, Anaerobic Capacity refers to the maximum amount of pyruvate that can be produced. An increase in Glycolytic capacity through improvements such as increases in Glycolytic enzymes is one example. The theory is that maximum pyruvate production impacts the LT because if more pyruvate is produced without a change in the amount that can be turned into Acetyl-CoA (or aerobic ability), then more pyruvate automatically gets converted to lactate. Therefore a change in LT can occur without any change in aerobic abilities. ([Location 1659](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1659)) - Tags: [[blue]] - These two factors interact to produce the lactate curve. An increase in anaerobic capacity would shift the curve to the left (meaning more lactate produced at each speed), while an increase in aerobic capacity would shift the curve to the right (meaning less lactate produced at each speed). The strength of each of these opposing forces determines where the curve ends up. While this view is still a simplistic actualization, it acknowledges the anaerobic contribution to the lactate curve and provides a better model for looking at the lactate curve. ([Location 1663](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1663)) - Tags: [[blue]] - From this point forward, I will refer to maximum pyruvate production as Anaerobic Capacity. Aerobic Capacity can be seen in the amount of pyruvate that is taken up by the mitochondria and leads to aerobic energy. ([Location 1673](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1673)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Looking at these two capacities, it can be seen how the model works in diagnosing training. In order to increase the energy available, we can increase the Anaerobic Capacity. That will allow the athlete to produce more pyruvate. However, if the aerobic capacity stays the same, then this means more lactate will be produced at that effort level. If we increase the aerobic capacity, then we can see that more of that pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria resulting in aerobic energy increase and less lactate at the given effort. This model shows lactate has an interaction with both the anaerobic capacity and the aerobic capacity, not just the aerobic capacity, which is widely recognized as the only source in traditional training models. ([Location 1674](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1674)) - Tags: [[blue]] - An anaerobic capacity test consists of running an all-out 400-600m and taking lactate readings every 2-3min afterward until a maximum reading occurs. This usually occurs within 5-9 minutes following a max test. Combining the maximum lactate number and the speed of your time trial, you get a good baseline idea of your anaerobic capacity. The higher the lactate and faster the speed, the higher the anaerobic capacity is. A decrease in maximum lactate levels and speed shows a decrease in anaerobic capacity. ([Location 1682](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1682)) - Tags: [[blue]] - there are actually several types of efficiency including metabolic, neural, and biomechanical. These three types of efficiencies combine to create total efficiency. ([Location 1711](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1711)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Running Economy is the measurement used to classify total efficiency in research. The measurement uses oxygen intake to represent energy use and is commonly defined by how much oxygen it takes to cover a given distance at a fixed speed (Saunders et al. 2004). ([Location 1716](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1716)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Biomechanical efficiency refers to the mechanical cost of running and includes such factors as energy storage and how wasteful the movement pattern is. ([Location 1723](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1723)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Neural efficiency can be defined as an improvement in the communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. ([Location 1724](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1724)) - Tags: [[blue]] - metabolic efficiency refers to factors that impact the production of energy for the muscles to use, such as fuel source or oxygen delivery. ([Location 1726](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1726)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The fact that muscle and tendon stiffness is one factor that can improve RE leads to the question “is an increase in flexibility is such a good thing?“ Contrary to popular belief, a stiffer muscle is more efficient during running than a flexible one. ([Location 1750](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1750)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Rapid movements such as sprinting or plyometrics will train the tendons to be better able to utilize the energy. ([Location 1770](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1770)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Since runners who focus on shorter events, such as middle distance athletes, tend to have greater vertical oscillation, it is likely that this is a more efficient way to run at faster speeds. A greater vertical oscillation is needed to cover ground in the air and reach their optimal stride length. ([Location 1803](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1803)) - Tags: [[blue]] - a forefoot strike potentially utilizes elastic storage and return to a much higher degree than a heel strike thus negating the muscle activation consequences. ([Location 1814](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1814)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Research by Ardigo backed up the benefits of a forefoot strike, showing that a forefoot strike results in a shorter ground contact time and time of acceleration, both beneficial adaptations (1996). ([Location 1815](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1815)) - Tags: [[blue]] - A study by Scholz found that runners with shorter heels had better RE (2008). This is due to the fact that a shorter Achilles tendon moment arm results in greater elastic storage. ([Location 1890](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1890)) - Tags: [[blue]] - To be successful, not only does a runner need to impart a large amount of force into the ground for propulsion, but they need to do so in a short period of time, often around a tenth of a second. Thus, it is not only about force production but also about the rate of force production. ([Location 1965](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1965)) - Tags: [[blue]] - There have been several studies that have found a correlation between Slow Twitch (ST) fiber percentages and improved RE (Svedenhag & Sjodin, 1994; Saunders et al., 2004). Other studies have found correlations between cycling efficiency and ST fiber content (Coyle et al., 1992). This is partially due to the ST fibers being better equipped to utilize oxygen due to its increased mitochondria, myoglobin, and Krebs cycle enzymes. With an increase in mitochondria, less oxygen will be used per mitochondria chain. This would result in a more efficient use of oxygen, resulting in a decrease in VO2. Another explanation is based on the mechanical efficiency of the different muscle fibers. ([Location 1980](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=1980)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The preferred fuel source in endurance races that last less than a couple of hours is glycogen. The body has a finite supply of glycogen stored in the muscles, while it has a relatively large supply of fat. Due to the limited glycogen stores, in longer distance races, such as a marathon, glycogen depletion is a major source of fatigue. However, in races of under an hour, which includes most of the distance races (3k, 5k, 10k, half marathon), glycogen depletion is generally not considered a major source of fatigue, but instead plays a large role in determining the training load (Costill & Trappe, 2002). ([Location 2001](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2001)) - Tags: [[blue]] - to delay fatigue from low glycogen, either an increase in total glycogen storage or a shift in being able to use more fat as a fuel source at marathon pace is necessary. Long runs and high mileage training tend to increase the total glycogen supply of the muscles. A change in the fuel source ratio also comes from long aerobic running and moderate paced aerobic running. Additionally, research has demonstrated that dietary manipulation such as training in a fasted state is one way to increase the use of fat as a fuel. Therefore, for a marathon runner, some runs, and long runs should be done without taking supplemental fuel, as low glycogen during the run seems to be the signal for a shift in substrate use. ([Location 2010](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2010)) - Tags: [[blue]] - One training adaptation that shifts the balance of fat and carbohydrate use towards fat usage is mitochondria density (Brooks & Mercier, 1994). An increase in mitochondria and mitochondrial enzymes, which occurs with endurance training, allows for greater use of fat as a fuel. ([Location 2019](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2019)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Due to the way RE is commonly measured, what the energy source is will affect the measurement. RE is commonly calculated by dividing the rate of oxygen uptake by running speed. VO2 is used because, when measured at a speed using almost entirely aerobic energy sources, it represents the amount of ATP used. However, the common measurement does not take into account that the energy equivalent of O2 depends on which substrate is used. Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins all provide a different amount of energy per liter of O2. ([Location 2035](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2035)) - Tags: [[blue]] - longer training duration was related to lower levels of both fear of pain and pain inhibition. Other studies have found similar correlations with pain tolerance and training, ([Location 2320](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2320)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Once the stimulus is provided, they create a disturbance in the body. If enough disturbance occurs, a change in homeostasis can occur via numerous mechanisms ranging from changes in fuel levels to the buildup of various products in the muscle. These alterations in physiological parameters act as messengers. When these messengers reach a critical level they act as triggers to the various signaling pathways. ([Location 2384](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2384)) - Tags: [[blue]] - These signaling events are important for both coaches and scientists, as knowing what events need to happen to trigger adaptation allows for the manipulation of training to try to accomplish this. These messengers are what must change in order to get adaptation. They are our workout’s targets on a physiological level. ([Location 2393](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2393)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The important take away is to learn how adaptation works. This allows you to design training based on the desired outcome. You do not need to know the specifics to apply this concept. Look at the glycogen depletion example. Just use logic and a good training workout can be deduced. If the marathon is an event that is dependent on the optimal fuel use ratio between carbohydrates and fats, how do we signal the body to change that ratio so that there is more reliance on fat. We need to “embarrass” it and send the signal that more fat needs to be used. How do you do that? Simple, by running a workout that depletes the glycogen stores to a significant enough amount that the body adapts to make sure that it does not run low on glycogen the next time. It accomplishes this by increasing the use of fat as a fuel and/or increasing glycogen stores. This example just took you through the process of adaptation without mentioning a single complex name. Use this technique to design solutions for to how to train for the upcoming race. ([Location 2422](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2422)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Following a single bout of training, mRNA levels increase and peak between 3-12 hours post exercise. The levels will remain elevated until around 24hrs post workout (Coffey & Hawley, 2007). With each increase in mRNA, a new level of protein synthesis is reached. So, while mRNA levels may fall back to resting levels after a day, the proteins that are created in this process remain elevated for much longer periods of time. For example, mitochondria protein turnover half-life is about 1 week. As mRNA levels return to baseline, protein levels level off. With each subsequent training stimulus that increases mRNA levels, the protein amounts are increased to a new level. Therefore, for long term training adaptation to occur, repeated bouts of exercise are needed to increase mRNA levels and continually keep progressing protein levels to the next level. If there is too long of a gap between training bouts, protein levels can potentially fall to the preceding level, and thus detraining occurs. ([Location 2432](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2432)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Where the study of signaling pathways really contributes to the practical world is in its demonstration of why the never ending debate of volume or intensity is not an either/or situation. The AMPK and Calcium-Calmodulin pathways both ultimately result in an increase in mitochondria development. What is interesting is that the AMPK pathway seems to be highly activated by short intense workouts such as 30sec sprints, while the Calcium-Calmodulin pathway is activated by prolonged endurance exercise (Laursen, 2004). What this demonstrates is that there are multiple ways to get the same adaptation. Two entirely different workouts activate two different pathways that give the same result. That explains why runners in particular need a wide variety of training stimuli. It also could explain why athletes who switch coaches from one emphasizing lots of long steady running to one emphasizing high intensity lower volume, or vice versa, seem to have breakthroughs for the first year before stagnating. Perhaps the mitochondria increases of one pathway are near maxed out, and when there is a dramatic change in training, the other pathway has more adaptation potential. ([Location 2447](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2447)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The individual response goes beyond short-term adaptation. In a study by Gaskill they tested the yearly training model for 14 Cross Country Skiers (1999). During the first year all skiers performed the same kind of training that consisted of high volume training with only 16% of the training being performed at or above LT. At the end of the year, subjects were split between responders, those who showed the most improvements, and non-responders. The responders trained the same way the following year, while the non-responders slightly reduced their training volume and increase the total intensity. Following the 2nd year, the non-responders showed significant improvements in race times, VO2max, and LT. The responders also showed similar continued improvements in race times. These results point to the individual nature of training adaptation and show that some subjects will thrive off of different training stimuli. The mechanism behind this different response has not been found yet. It is speculation, but a difference in the fiber type distribution and strength of aerobic and anaerobic capacities might explain the different reactions to training. Perhaps an individual with a tendency towards more FT fibers responds better to higher intensity training that recruits those muscle fibers. Similarly, an athlete with a predominance of ST fibers might respond better to more volume. ([Location 2579](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2579)) - Tags: [[blue]] - For recreationally trained runners, training at around the threshold seems to impact LT, RE, and VO2max. Four different studies with recreational athletes found that adding between 1 and 6 LT type sessions per week increased VO2max by between 2.5-8.1% after 6-8 weeks of training. In addition, two studies measured changes in LT and found that it increased by 3.3% and 10.7% respectively. It is worth noting that the 10.7% increase was seen when 6 sessions of LT training were done per week, while the other study added two such sessions per week. Lastly, improvements in RE were measured and seen in two studies with improvements of both 1.8% and 3.1% (Billat et al. 2004; Franch et al., 1998; Hoffman et al., 1999; Yoshida et al., 1990). ([Location 2659](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2659)) - Tags: [[blue]] - In a paper by Laursen, he points out two key findings. First, without a background of high volume training, high intensity training can maintain but seldom improve performance (2009). Second, while the adaptations of high intensity and high volume training may be similar, they may occur via two different pathways. Most of the training studies manipulating intensity of training add high intensity work to an athlete’s training schedule who has been doing a large volume of low intensity training. This approach where high volume training must precede high intensity training is fundamental in popular literature on distance running, but it is neglected in the research. ([Location 2736](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2736)) - Tags: [[blue]] - According to Laursen, high volume training may signal for adaptations through the calcium-calmodulin pathway because of the increase in intramuscular calcium seen in long duration, high volume training (2004). In contrast to this, high intensity training may signal adaptations through the adenosine monophosphate kinase (AMPK) pathway because of the increase in AMP seen following high intensity training. Both of these pathways eventually lead to PGC-1α, which is a transcriptional cofactor that will result in the typical adaptations seen in endurance athletes such as mitochondria biogenesis (Laursen, 2004). Laursen thus concludes that there are two very different ways to achieve similar adaptations. This points to the idea that to maximize these adaptations both stimuli are likely needed as one pathway may be more difficult to activate than the other depending on the individual and their training status. ([Location 2750](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2750)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The classification of training in certain zones does not take into account the differences between various paces. Similarly, the classification of training based on %VO2max should be called into question based on recent studies. This could potentially explain the wide range in results of training intervention studies and is another factor that needs to be taken into consideration. ([Location 2983](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2983)) - Tags: [[blue]] - This leads to the logical conclusion that research should shift in design to actually mimic what is done in the real world. It is very seldom seen that an athlete does the same exact interval session 2-3 times a week for 6 weeks, yet that is what is done in training studies to discern the effects of a particular workout. Perhaps the effects of that workout would be different when surrounded by a variety of other stimuli, which is what is found in the real world. ([Location 2986](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=2986)) - Tags: [[blue]] - As of now, little credence is given to research studies by coaches or athletes, most likely because two factors. First, the studies on training seldom are applicable to real world training. Second, on many issues, such as volume of training, due to the measurements used and the length of studies, the research does not match up with real world experiences by world-class athletes. ([Location 3006](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3006)) - Tags: [[blue]] - If stimulus leads to adaptation given enough rest, then what matters is applying the correct stimulus to get the adaptation the athlete needs and then knowing how long it takes before a similar stimulus can be applied. The first step is knowing what adaptation we are in search of, then deciding what the stimulus is that leads to that adaptation, and finally figuring out how much of that stimulus we need to get the necessary adaptation. ([Location 3094](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3094)) - Tags: [[blue]] - What a Coach Needs to Know What adaptations are needed for your individual athlete training for an event. Timing—At what period and how often should the athlete be working on these adaptations. How much stimulus (volume, intensity, density, etc.) needs to be applied for your individual athlete. How much recovery and what type of training can be done while the athlete adapts. Advanced Understandings What external factors can influence adaption (nutrition, recovery, physio, timing, etc.) Interactions between confounding adaptations. Amplifiers and Dampeners of adaptation process. ([Location 3104](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3104)) - Tags: [[blue]] - This is quite different from a traditional model of coaching. While it may seem subtle, it is important. Traditionally, the idea is that we come up with a grand overarching training philosophy, and then somehow force each athlete into that model. What I am suggesting as a theme throughout this book is to turn that idea on its head. Know the event demands and how the individual affects those demands and then build your training model around that. ([Location 3126](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3126)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The first step is to look at how long it will take to develop a particular adaptation for that athlete. This of course depends on how much we are trying to progress an adaptation. If we are looking at making huge gains in general aerobic endurance, then we might need to devote more time than if we were looking for moderate gains. There are adaptations that occur very quickly, such as neural adaptations to a balance program, and there are adaptations that take very long to develop, such as general endurance. Remember that we are not talking about how long it takes to maximally develop an adaptation, as that may take years of work, but instead, in this context we are talking about how long it will take within this periodization time frame to reach a level necessary to hit this season’s goals. ([Location 3140](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3140)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Therefore we have to look at both the physical and psychological to assess how well they recover from each workout. After all, a workout can be relatively moderate physically but have a huge psychological demand if a runner fears a particular type of workout. Therefore, it’s important to look at all aspects of stress load and how a runner recovers from them. ([Location 3181](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3181)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Taking five hits of ~20g of protein throughout the day will keep protein synthesis elevated throughout the day. Additionally, taking a large dose of protein before bed will keep protein synthesis elevated during sleep, which is when a large portion of recovery and repair takes place. This hit of protein before bed has been shown to significantly aid recovery. So it’s a good strategy to use when trying to recover from a particularly hard bout of training. ([Location 3229](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3229)) - Tags: [[blue]] - What happens here is that the anti-inflammatory drugs or substance clears out some of the inflammatory biomarkers which act as signaling pathway triggers. When we clear these markers out and thus dampen the pathway activation, what we are left with is less translation to a functional adaptation. In simpler terms, if our body senses a lot of inflammation, it brings in the heavy-duty repair equipment to shore up the defenses and build it stronger. If all of the sudden, we have a 3rd party that takes care of some of the damage, then the body simply says, “oh the problem wasn’t as bad as we thought, so we don’t have to do as big of a fortification job as we anticipated.” ([Location 3256](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3256)) - Tags: [[blue]] ## New highlights added July 31, 2025 at 9:14 PM - the idea behind a pre-req is that the further we build up the pre-req, then the more we can develop the subsequent adaptation. In fact, sometimes we cannot progress a particular adaptation without going back to the pre-requisite adaptation. As a quick example, if we have an 800m runner who has run 1:47 but can only run a 50.0sec 400m, then no matter how much specific endurance work we do, his 800m time likely won’t improve. He’s capped out on that development because he has maxed out that ability because he’s already holding 53.5sec pace and likely coming through in 52sec. In order to give him some more room for development, we’d have to work on anaerobic capacity to get that 400m down to 49.0 so that we could then have some room to improve his specific endurance for the 800m. Given this scenario, a pre-req for his 800m specific endurance development would be work on his anaerobic capacity to give him a bigger gap between his 400m and what he comes through in his 800m. ([Location 3374](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3374)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The process of coaching can be broken down as follows. Philosophical to Details approach: Identify: Event/Race Demands Race schedule Individual adjustments to demands Training adaptations we are looking for based on Model constructed. Know What stimulus leads to those adaptations Interactions between stimuli Prerequisites for development Amplifiers and Dampeners for adaptation Periodization/Timing of development of adaptations Decide How much stimulus How much Recovery What direction to take adaptation Correct Balance throughout year Design Workout progressions Periodization/shifts in emphasis Adjust Continual adjustment of workload, emphasis, balance based on: Physical Emotional Psychological ([Location 3429](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3429)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Instead of using such a zoning scheme, we’ll use a system that was popularized in Renato Canova’s A Scientific Approach to the Marathon but has been used in Europe for over 30 years and is common in sprint and power events for classification. The advantage of such a system is that the focus is on what matters: running speed. Instead of using physiological parameters, it focuses on how closely the workout or run you are doing replicates the desired race. Why does that matter? Because of the training law of specificity. ([Location 3608](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3608)) - Tags: [[blue]] - Before looking at the classification system, a couple of points need to be made. First, there are no magical training zones that maximize adaptation or “dead” space where adaptation is less. The body responds to the demand it is placed under, thus every training pace will impart a slightly different stimulus. Certain stimuli will be needed at different times throughout the season, but the take away message is that there are no magic stimuli or “dead” zones. Many runners get caught up in only running at certain intensities, while completely neglecting the in between speeds. This is often seen in American runners where there is little training, if any, done at the speeds between lactate threshold and normal distance run pace. When such a wide range of speeds is neglected, there is a wide array of stimuli and adaptations that the runner is missing out on. ([Location 3619](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3619)) - Tags: [[blue]] - The multifaceted base means that instead of creating a base of just aerobic running, we are establishing a metabolic, neuromuscular, and structural foundation. As discussed earlier, the idea of constructing an endurance base is sound, but what needs to be added is the base on which to build speed. In other words, the endurance base works from the top down towards specificity, while the speed base should work from the bottom up. ([Location 3687](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B00II6SY4W&location=3687)) - Tags: [[blue]]